Thursday, December 31, 2015
Wednesday, December 23, 2015
Dec 23 (W), 2015 Learn to appreciate the Digital Leviathans
Sun Lasting
10 mins ·
Happy Holidays!
Merry Christmas and Happy New Year!
Here is a snapshot. A "positive" one is on the way. Stay tuned.
Sun Lasting Honestly and fairly speaking, without the "positive" side of digital ingenuity, it would have cost me hours and hours to get this poster available (in face, I have a Computer Science minor degree, not a 100% Luddite!) :)!
Thanks to big Tech-Brothers-Sisters. Happy new year!
Sun Lasting Is there so-called "digital karma" hidden inside the digital sheep and shepherd?
10 mins ·
Happy Holidays!
Merry Christmas and Happy New Year!
Here is a snapshot. A "positive" one is on the way. Stay tuned.
Sun Lasting Honestly and fairly speaking, without the "positive" side of digital ingenuity, it would have cost me hours and hours to get this poster available (in face, I have a Computer Science minor degree, not a 100% Luddite!) :)!
Thanks to big Tech-Brothers-Sisters. Happy new year!
Sun Lasting Is there so-called "digital karma" hidden inside the digital sheep and shepherd?
Dec 23 (W), 2015. The bitter-sweet sex/gender trap Part I and II
Happy Holidays!
Merry Christmas and Happy New Year!
Stumbled upon an interesting article regarding gender issues.
Compiled on a poster for reference:
周慧霖, Leigh Hong, Marian Smith and 2 others like this.
Comments
Sun Lasting
Like · Reply · 2 · 5 mins · Edited
Julie Yollin Berk we're all flawed, some more so than others!
Unlike · Reply · 1 · 7 hrs
Sun Lasting The above poster seems too serious! Here is a nice sequel, just for fun :)!
Like · Reply · 12 mins · Edited
Sun Lasting @Julie, indeed, Tweedledee is fond of Tweedledum :)!
Tuesday, December 22, 2015
Dec 22 (T), 2015. Rendering EQ and/or IQ => Transhumanism + Transdisciplinary
Sun Lasting shared Radical Science News's post.
44 mins ·
Stumbled upon an article.
A short note - sounds like in my classroom (not a kitty/birdy fb post, and might bore you :)!
- A recurrent issue and examination of "nature and/or nurture" or "genetic and/or environmental Influences" on emotional well being, mental health, and reducing sentient beings' (yes, should include non-human living beings) suffering was discussed in the attached article below.
The technocrats/technophiles tend to be optimistic on the capacity of artificial intelligent, genetic "engineering"...etc. (quasi-Star-War approaches?) to mitigate problems confronting humanity. The rest of the biotech also tint with such a buoyancy...
Radical Science News
December 8 at 7:57pm ·
Transhumanism Solving Violence and Improving the Human Condition: IQ, EQi, and Intelligence...
Can we end violence? Can we create greater emotional well being and intellectual equality for the greater well being of humanity? Will we be able to keep up with…
RADICALSCIENCENEWS.ORG|BY CARLA MARIE PARSONS
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江浪 likes this.
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Sun Lasting Here discussing a part of the article which included an individual case-study and an investigation of a group of 152 subjects.
In the above writing, there is a research conducted by Jim F. who is a neuroscientist studying what causes psychopathic behavior (domestically and globally) also found himself fit the profile for a psychopath.
44 mins ·
Stumbled upon an article.
A short note - sounds like in my classroom (not a kitty/birdy fb post, and might bore you :)!
- A recurrent issue and examination of "nature and/or nurture" or "genetic and/or environmental Influences" on emotional well being, mental health, and reducing sentient beings' (yes, should include non-human living beings) suffering was discussed in the attached article below.
The technocrats/technophiles tend to be optimistic on the capacity of artificial intelligent, genetic "engineering"...etc. (quasi-Star-War approaches?) to mitigate problems confronting humanity. The rest of the biotech also tint with such a buoyancy...
Radical Science News
December 8 at 7:57pm ·
Transhumanism Solving Violence and Improving the Human Condition: IQ, EQi, and Intelligence...
Can we end violence? Can we create greater emotional well being and intellectual equality for the greater well being of humanity? Will we be able to keep up with…
RADICALSCIENCENEWS.ORG|BY CARLA MARIE PARSONS
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江浪 likes this.
Comments
Sun Lasting Here discussing a part of the article which included an individual case-study and an investigation of a group of 152 subjects.
In the above writing, there is a research conducted by Jim F. who is a neuroscientist studying what causes psychopathic behavior (domestically and globally) also found himself fit the profile for a psychopath.
The conclusion is, as you can predict - he recollected that if he had grown up in an undesirable living condition, such as poverty, violence, and the rest of detriments to the human development, the probability for him to be a scientist is minimal, and can be "worse"...
“Compared to a control brain (top), neuroscientist Jim F’s brain shows significantly decreased activity in areas of the frontal lobe linked to empathy and morality—anatomical patterns that have been linked with psychopathic behavior. If James had grown up in an environment that was devoid of love, and filled with violence, say a war zone, James could be a much different individual from whom he is today. In cases where violence is exhibited, we can safely say that both environment, and genetics are at play but determining precisely and editing out the psychopath gene entirely in germ cell lines could not only make us smarter but make violent tendencies less prevalent in society.
Now we have an understanding of how violent tendencies are linked to lower IQ and that higher IQ leads to higher emotional intelligence overall. In 2013, a study of 152 Vietnam Veterans were examined for emotional and general intelligence. “The study found significant overlap between general intelligence and emotional intelligence, both in terms of behavior and in the brain.” So, it’s reasonable to assume that emotional intelligence and general intelligence are without any doubt inextricably linked. But is there also a real link between violence and a lack of intelligence?
The answer is yes, there is a definite link, and it is called the IQ/aggression connection. In a study at UT Dallas scientists found that a prison inmate’s IQ, as well as the average IQ of a prison unit played a predicting role in violence and prison misconduct. The lower the average IQ of the unit the more violent outbreaks ensued. If violence is a product low IQ, thus we can conclude that low IQ is an existential risk to all life on earth. When the availability of these treatments become a part of your normal physical/well being check up, systemic issues like war that are created by, low brain activity, psychopathy and genetic pre-dispositions could all but be eliminated.”
But, my point toward the above claim is the concept of IQ. Like behavior and cognition, intelligence is influenced by both genetic and environmental factors. The general definition of intelligence includes the ability to learn from experiences and adapt to changing environments, such as illustrated by g (factors) and multiple-intelligent theory.
From this point of view, doesn't it reveal the impact of the intricate relations of genetics and (not vs.) environment?
An excerpt from the article:
An excerpt from the article:
“Compared to a control brain (top), neuroscientist Jim F’s brain shows significantly decreased activity in areas of the frontal lobe linked to empathy and morality—anatomical patterns that have been linked with psychopathic behavior. If James had grown up in an environment that was devoid of love, and filled with violence, say a war zone, James could be a much different individual from whom he is today. In cases where violence is exhibited, we can safely say that both environment, and genetics are at play but determining precisely and editing out the psychopath gene entirely in germ cell lines could not only make us smarter but make violent tendencies less prevalent in society.
Now we have an understanding of how violent tendencies are linked to lower IQ and that higher IQ leads to higher emotional intelligence overall. In 2013, a study of 152 Vietnam Veterans were examined for emotional and general intelligence. “The study found significant overlap between general intelligence and emotional intelligence, both in terms of behavior and in the brain.” So, it’s reasonable to assume that emotional intelligence and general intelligence are without any doubt inextricably linked. But is there also a real link between violence and a lack of intelligence?
The answer is yes, there is a definite link, and it is called the IQ/aggression connection. In a study at UT Dallas scientists found that a prison inmate’s IQ, as well as the average IQ of a prison unit played a predicting role in violence and prison misconduct. The lower the average IQ of the unit the more violent outbreaks ensued. If violence is a product low IQ, thus we can conclude that low IQ is an existential risk to all life on earth. When the availability of these treatments become a part of your normal physical/well being check up, systemic issues like war that are created by, low brain activity, psychopathy and genetic pre-dispositions could all but be eliminated.”
Like · Reply · 2 mins · Edited
Sun Lasting Here is the conclusion of this article:
"So, can we solve global violence? The answer is Yes, with sensible gun laws, gene editing, and citizen policing we can but the real questions is…. will we decide to do so or will a false moralism, the economic fallacy that war is good, and the inability to change our thinking keep us from creating these breakthroughs? The rest is up to you. Looking forward to our next intellectual journey, another important globally impacting article is already on it’s way."
Sun Lasting Optimistic! The transhumanism might prevail, if most of the "7.3 billion population - still increasing", obtain the optimal opportunity (ya, life chances) like what Jim has had...
But, how, in addition to the sensible gun laws, "gene editing", citizen policing, false moralism, economic fallacy, and alternative thoughts? Lots of breakthroughs can be done.
Sun Lasting Just found a potential solution: "If our actions make it so there is even a one-thousandth of 1 percent chance that things will work out better for ourselves and the planet, then it is our moral duty to act and act and act. Before it’s too late." - Derrick Jensen.
Don't you think this is a great optimism - required by the humanity of the 21st century to keep this Planet alive - a collective endeavor of the transdisciplinarists working for the transhumanism?
Sun Lasting Here is the conclusion of this article:
"So, can we solve global violence? The answer is Yes, with sensible gun laws, gene editing, and citizen policing we can but the real questions is…. will we decide to do so or will a false moralism, the economic fallacy that war is good, and the inability to change our thinking keep us from creating these breakthroughs? The rest is up to you. Looking forward to our next intellectual journey, another important globally impacting article is already on it’s way."
Sun Lasting Optimistic! The transhumanism might prevail, if most of the "7.3 billion population - still increasing", obtain the optimal opportunity (ya, life chances) like what Jim has had...
But, how, in addition to the sensible gun laws, "gene editing", citizen policing, false moralism, economic fallacy, and alternative thoughts? Lots of breakthroughs can be done.
Sun Lasting Just found a potential solution: "If our actions make it so there is even a one-thousandth of 1 percent chance that things will work out better for ourselves and the planet, then it is our moral duty to act and act and act. Before it’s too late." - Derrick Jensen. Don't you think this is a great optimism - required by the humanity of the 21st century to keep this Planet alive - a collective endeavor of the transdisciplinarists working for the transhumanism?
Dec 22 (Sn), 2015. The civilized/commodified of the brand new world
Sun Lasting shared A million smiles's video. Click the following video to enjoy! https://www.facebook.com/amillionsmilesmovie/videos/788897394569275/
What is more magnificent than an Oceanic- Concert Hall?
What is more resonant than the drum-beats from these little touching souls?
What is more delightful than the wholehearted angelic voices?
All so natural, wholesome, and joyous heart emoticon smile emoticon! Enjoy it!
...See MoreWhat is more resonant than the drum-beats from these little touching souls?
What is more delightful than the wholehearted angelic voices?
All so natural, wholesome, and joyous heart emoticon smile emoticon! Enjoy it!
-09:35
1,064,248 Views
A million smiles added a new video: When Doves Roar.
Wow! Just wow!!!!!!!!!! Here's the full beach concert these kids did for us smile emoticon
How Elon Musk and Y Combinator Plan to Stop Computers From Taking Over — Backchannel
Their new organization, OpenAI, wants to pursue the most advanced forms of artificial intelligence — and give the result…
MEDIUM.COM|BY STEVEN LEVY
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Monday, December 21, 2015
Dec 21 (M), 2015 A new year resolution!
1 hr ·
Jill Stein
December 18 at 3:27pm ·
Time for real change in America! Support clean-money Presidential candidate Jill Stein TODAY and get your donation matched by public funds!
Wisconsin! Want a candidate who's not for sale?
Ready for a Presidential candidate who puts people and planet over profit? Click here to donate and double your dollars through Federal Matching Funds!
Donate Now
JILL2016.COM/DONATEWI
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江浪 likes this.
Comments
Sun Lasting
Don't most of Wisconsinites have enough during last 5 years?
The donated fund will be MATCHED!!!
Who can help a Party grow without Corporate' s orchestration?
Don't you think that a truly Democratic America Deserves an alternative stronger, wholesome 3rd "We-the-People" Party??
Like · Reply · 21 mins · Edited
Sun Lasting Have you ever felt "Enough is Enough ?!"
Have you ever tied of choosing the Less Evil One?
Who can help a Party grow without Corporate's orchestration? Yes, we can
- the Powerful each of US!
Yes, mountainous! Indeed, hard to choose, difficult to climb up...
But, never lose HOPE!
Without EACH Leaf, how can an oak tree grow?
Without EACH drop of water, how can an ocean become?!
If you worry about the potential damage on other Part(ies),
then no whining,
no fantasized Anarchism,
enjoy 2 Tweedledee-Tweedledum Parties' sweet tyranny :)!
Like · Reply · Just now · Edited
Sun Lasting Is there a Media-Terrorism silencing/terrorizing a 3rd Party's voice?
Like · Reply · Just now · Edited
Sun Lasting
These 2 Parties, co-culpriting:
The more obedient one is,
the smaller the pay-checks one earns,
the quicker one's job will be taken away,
the largest taxes one has to pay, and -
the more a "Heroic Die-Heart Patriot" one becomes!!! - just like me :)!
Why still support the biggest military-corporate-media complex in the world !!!??
Activate guts, and dare to Resist and Unite!
Take a look at part of U.S. Companies that are Stashing $2.1 Trillion Overseas to Avoid Taxes -
http://www.bloomberg.com/.../u-s-companies-are-stashing-2...
Like · Reply · 2 mins · Edited
Sunday, December 20, 2015
Dec 20 (Sn), 2015. Enjoy Eating Money...
Sun Lasting Being invited to participate in a webnair by Adam Weissmanhttps://actionnetwork.org/.../toxic-trade-climate-deniers...
TOXIC TRADE: CLIMATE DENIERS DREAM DATE
Last week, during COP21 negotiations, a leaked…
ACTIONNETWORK.ORG
Like · Reply · Remove Preview · 1 · 57 mins
Sun Lasting Thanks to Peter Singer and Adam Weissman. Their messages inspired me to organize this poster.
Sun Lasting A viral video : https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WfGMYdalClU
MAN
Animation created in Flash and After Effects looking at mans relationship with the natural…
YOUTUBE.COM
Like · Reply · Remove Preview · 9 mins
TOXIC TRADE: CLIMATE DENIERS DREAM DATE
Last week, during COP21 negotiations, a leaked…
ACTIONNETWORK.ORG
Like · Reply · Remove Preview · 1 · 57 mins
Sun Lasting Thanks to Peter Singer and Adam Weissman. Their messages inspired me to organize this poster.
Sun Lasting A viral video : https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WfGMYdalClU
MAN
Animation created in Flash and After Effects looking at mans relationship with the natural…
YOUTUBE.COM
Like · Reply · Remove Preview · 9 mins
Dec 20 (Sn), 2015. BioEthics, Preferential Utilitarianism, and Hedonistic Utilitarianism.
Sun Lasting
16 mins ·
A message from the Philosopher, Professor, Author, Environmentalist, Animal Liberation/Rights, Peace and Justice Activist:
Peter Singer
1 hr · Twitter ·
The 3rd edition of Bioethics: an anthology, edited by me, Helga Kuhse & Udo Schuklenk is now out, all 800pp!
Wiley: Bioethics: An Anthology, 3rd Edition - Helga Kuhse, Udo Schuklenk, Peter Singer
Now fully revised and updated, Bioethics: An Anthology, 3rd edition, contains a wealth of new material reflecting the latest developments. This definitive text brings together writings on an unparalleled range of key ethical issues, compellingly presented by internationally renowned scholars.
WILEY.COM/WILEYCDA/WILEY…
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You and 江浪 like this.
Sun Lasting Mr. Peter A.D. Singer, is an Australian moral philosopher. He is the Ira W. DeCamp Professor of Bioethics at Princeton University, and a Laureate Professor at the Center for Applied Philosophy and Public Ethics at the University of Melbourne. He supported preference utilitarianism, but in his later years became a classical or hedonistic utilitarian.
He specializes in applied ethics and approaches ethical issues from a secular, utilitarian perspective. He is known in particular for his book, Animal Liberation (1975), a canonical text in animal rights/liberation theory.
Like · Reply · 1 min · Edited
Sun Lasting A brief of Utilitarianism (especially, preferential utilitarianism => hedonistic utilitarianism) and its controversies: "a form of consequentialism, which states that the consequences of any action are the only standard of right and wrong. This view can be contrasted or combined with virtue ethics which holds virtue as a moral good. Some believe that one's intentions are also ethically important. Utilitarianism is distinctly different from other forms of consequentialism such as egoism as it considers all interests equally. Proponents of utilitarianism have been split about whether individual acts should conform to utility (act utilitarianism) or whether agents should conform to ethical rules (rule utilitarianism). Utilitarians additionally remain split about whether utility should be calculated as an aggregate (total utilitarianism) or an average (average utilitarianism).
Historically, hedonism can be traced back to Aristippus and Epicurus who viewed happiness as the only good. Bentham is, however, credited with founding utilitarianism when he wrote An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation. Since Bentham, prominent utilitarians have included John Stuart Mill, Henry Sidgwick, R.M. Hare and Peter Singer. The philosophy has been applied to modern issues including the suffering of non-human animals. Specifically, utilitarianism has been applied to the ethics of raising animals for food and the ethics of wild animal suffering. Effective altruism is a philosophy aimed at improving the world through evidence based means, which has been supported on utilitarian grounds.
Opponents of utilitarianism have criticized it for many reasons. Some have said that utilitarianism ignores justice while others contend that utilitarianism is impractical. Specific criticisms have included the mere addition paradox and the utility monster. Others have said that pleasure is not commensurable across people with varying identities and thus the idea of aggregating utility is impossible". Refer to Wikipedia.
Like · Reply · 10 mins · Edited
Sun Lasting "Singer's Practical Ethics (1979) analyzes why and how living beings' interests should be weighed. His principle of equal consideration of interests does not dictate equal treatment of all those with interests, since different interests warrant different treatment. All have an interest in avoiding pain, for instance, but relatively few have an interest in cultivating their abilities. Not only does his principle justify different treatment for different interests, but it allows different treatment for the same interest when diminishing marginal utility is a factor. For example, this approach would privilege a starving person's interest in food over the same interest of someone who is only slightly hungry.
Among the more important human interests are those in avoiding pain, in developing one's abilities, in satisfying basic needs for food and shelter, in enjoying warm personal relationships, in being free to pursue one's projects without interference, "and many others". The fundamental interest that entitles a being to equal consideration is the capacity for "suffering and/or enjoyment or happiness". Singer holds that a being's interests should always be weighed according to that being's concrete properties. He favors a 'journey' model of life, which measures the wrongness of taking a life by the degree to which doing so frustrates a life journey's goals.[clarification needed] The journey model is tolerant of some frustrated desire and explains why persons who have embarked on their journeys are not replaceable. Only a personal interest in continuing to live brings the journey model into play. This model also explains the priority that Singer attaches to interests over trivial desires and pleasures.
Ethical conduct is justifiable by reasons that go beyond prudence to "something bigger than the individual," addressing a larger audience. Singer thinks this going-beyond identifies moral reasons as "somehow universal", specifically in the injunction to 'love thy neighbor as thyself', interpreted by him as demanding that one give the same weight to the interests of others as one gives to one's own interests. This universalising step, which Singer traces from Kant to Hare, is crucial and sets him apart from those moral theorists, from Hobbes to David Gauthier, who tie morality to prudence. Universalisation leads directly to utilitarianism, Singer argues, on the strength of the thought that one's own interests cannot count for more than the interests of others. Taking these into account, one must weigh them up and adopt the course of action that is most likely to maximise the interests of those affected; utilitarianism has been arrived at. Singer's universalising step applies to interests without reference to who has them, whereas a Kantian's applies to the judgments of rational agents (in Kant's kingdom of ends, or Rawls's Original Position, etc.). Singer regards Kantian universalisation as unjust to animals. As for the Hobbesians, Singer attempts a response in the final chapter of Practical Ethics, arguing that self-interested reasons support adoption of the moral point of view, such as 'the paradox of hedonism', which counsels that happiness is best found by not looking for it, and the need most people feel to relate to something larger than their own concerns." Refer to Wikipedia.
Like · Reply · Just now
16 mins ·
A message from the Philosopher, Professor, Author, Environmentalist, Animal Liberation/Rights, Peace and Justice Activist:
Peter Singer
1 hr · Twitter ·
The 3rd edition of Bioethics: an anthology, edited by me, Helga Kuhse & Udo Schuklenk is now out, all 800pp!
Wiley: Bioethics: An Anthology, 3rd Edition - Helga Kuhse, Udo Schuklenk, Peter Singer
Now fully revised and updated, Bioethics: An Anthology, 3rd edition, contains a wealth of new material reflecting the latest developments. This definitive text brings together writings on an unparalleled range of key ethical issues, compellingly presented by internationally renowned scholars.
WILEY.COM/WILEYCDA/WILEY…
LikeCommentShare
You and 江浪 like this.
Sun Lasting Mr. Peter A.D. Singer, is an Australian moral philosopher. He is the Ira W. DeCamp Professor of Bioethics at Princeton University, and a Laureate Professor at the Center for Applied Philosophy and Public Ethics at the University of Melbourne. He supported preference utilitarianism, but in his later years became a classical or hedonistic utilitarian.
He specializes in applied ethics and approaches ethical issues from a secular, utilitarian perspective. He is known in particular for his book, Animal Liberation (1975), a canonical text in animal rights/liberation theory.
Like · Reply · 1 min · Edited
Sun Lasting A brief of Utilitarianism (especially, preferential utilitarianism => hedonistic utilitarianism) and its controversies: "a form of consequentialism, which states that the consequences of any action are the only standard of right and wrong. This view can be contrasted or combined with virtue ethics which holds virtue as a moral good. Some believe that one's intentions are also ethically important. Utilitarianism is distinctly different from other forms of consequentialism such as egoism as it considers all interests equally. Proponents of utilitarianism have been split about whether individual acts should conform to utility (act utilitarianism) or whether agents should conform to ethical rules (rule utilitarianism). Utilitarians additionally remain split about whether utility should be calculated as an aggregate (total utilitarianism) or an average (average utilitarianism).
Historically, hedonism can be traced back to Aristippus and Epicurus who viewed happiness as the only good. Bentham is, however, credited with founding utilitarianism when he wrote An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation. Since Bentham, prominent utilitarians have included John Stuart Mill, Henry Sidgwick, R.M. Hare and Peter Singer. The philosophy has been applied to modern issues including the suffering of non-human animals. Specifically, utilitarianism has been applied to the ethics of raising animals for food and the ethics of wild animal suffering. Effective altruism is a philosophy aimed at improving the world through evidence based means, which has been supported on utilitarian grounds.
Opponents of utilitarianism have criticized it for many reasons. Some have said that utilitarianism ignores justice while others contend that utilitarianism is impractical. Specific criticisms have included the mere addition paradox and the utility monster. Others have said that pleasure is not commensurable across people with varying identities and thus the idea of aggregating utility is impossible". Refer to Wikipedia.
Like · Reply · 10 mins · Edited
Sun Lasting "Singer's Practical Ethics (1979) analyzes why and how living beings' interests should be weighed. His principle of equal consideration of interests does not dictate equal treatment of all those with interests, since different interests warrant different treatment. All have an interest in avoiding pain, for instance, but relatively few have an interest in cultivating their abilities. Not only does his principle justify different treatment for different interests, but it allows different treatment for the same interest when diminishing marginal utility is a factor. For example, this approach would privilege a starving person's interest in food over the same interest of someone who is only slightly hungry.
Among the more important human interests are those in avoiding pain, in developing one's abilities, in satisfying basic needs for food and shelter, in enjoying warm personal relationships, in being free to pursue one's projects without interference, "and many others". The fundamental interest that entitles a being to equal consideration is the capacity for "suffering and/or enjoyment or happiness". Singer holds that a being's interests should always be weighed according to that being's concrete properties. He favors a 'journey' model of life, which measures the wrongness of taking a life by the degree to which doing so frustrates a life journey's goals.[clarification needed] The journey model is tolerant of some frustrated desire and explains why persons who have embarked on their journeys are not replaceable. Only a personal interest in continuing to live brings the journey model into play. This model also explains the priority that Singer attaches to interests over trivial desires and pleasures.
Ethical conduct is justifiable by reasons that go beyond prudence to "something bigger than the individual," addressing a larger audience. Singer thinks this going-beyond identifies moral reasons as "somehow universal", specifically in the injunction to 'love thy neighbor as thyself', interpreted by him as demanding that one give the same weight to the interests of others as one gives to one's own interests. This universalising step, which Singer traces from Kant to Hare, is crucial and sets him apart from those moral theorists, from Hobbes to David Gauthier, who tie morality to prudence. Universalisation leads directly to utilitarianism, Singer argues, on the strength of the thought that one's own interests cannot count for more than the interests of others. Taking these into account, one must weigh them up and adopt the course of action that is most likely to maximise the interests of those affected; utilitarianism has been arrived at. Singer's universalising step applies to interests without reference to who has them, whereas a Kantian's applies to the judgments of rational agents (in Kant's kingdom of ends, or Rawls's Original Position, etc.). Singer regards Kantian universalisation as unjust to animals. As for the Hobbesians, Singer attempts a response in the final chapter of Practical Ethics, arguing that self-interested reasons support adoption of the moral point of view, such as 'the paradox of hedonism', which counsels that happiness is best found by not looking for it, and the need most people feel to relate to something larger than their own concerns." Refer to Wikipedia.
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